A zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV, is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power.[1][2] Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates (soot), hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board (CARB) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) definitions, the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds, several air toxics, and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.[3] Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles; battery electric vehicles, which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal power plant[4]; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen, which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated. Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions, as they do emit water or water vapor, although they are still usually included in this category.
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The term zero-emissions or ZEV, as originally coined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB), refers only to tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power. Therefore CARB's definition is accounting only for pollutants emitted at the point of the vehicle operation, and the clean air benefits are usually local because depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the electricity generation plants.[5]
In a similar manner, a zero-emissions vehicle does not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power at the point of operation, but a well-to-wheel assessment takes into account the carbon dioxide and other emissions produced during electricity generation, and therefore, the extent of the real benefit depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric , or nuclear power for ZEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.[5][6] On the other hand, when ZEVs are recharged from electricity exclusively generated by coal-fired plants, they produce approximately the same greenhouse gas emissions as internal combustion engine vehicles.[7]
Other countries have a different definition of ZEV, noteworthy the more recent inclusion of greenhouse gases, as many European rules now regulate carbon dioxide CO2 emissions. CARB role in regulating greenhouse gases began in 2004 based on the 2002 Pavley Act (AB 1493), but blocked by lawsuits and by EPA in 2007, by rejecting the required waiver. Additional responsibilities were granted to CARB by California's Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 (AB 32), which includes the mandate to set low-carbon fuel standards.[5]
As a result of alleged false car advertising, "zero-emissions" claims the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) in the UK ruled in March 2010 to ban an advertisement from Renault UK regarding it's "zero-emissions vehicles" because the ad breached CAP (Broadcast) TV Code rules 5.1.1, 5.1.2 (Misleading advertising) and 5.2.1 (Misleading advertising- Evidence) and 5.2.6 (Misleading advertising-Environmental claims.)[8]
Considering the current U.S. energy mix, a ZEV would produce a 30% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions.[9][10][11] Given the current energy mixes in other countries, it has been predicted that such emissions would decrease by 40% in the U.K.,[12] 19% in China,[13] and just 1% in Germany[7]
Technological development by TTS Port Equipment in Gothenburg, Sweden and with research partners in Lausanne, Switzerland have adapted a ground-based contactless energy transfer technology that is referred to as inductive energy. The use of the inductive energy technology has enable the company to develop an energy chain, which achieves zero emissions. [1]
This contactless energy transfer technology contains ground-based and vehicle-based components. The power electronics element and the "coils" enable an AGV to receive energy from the coils that are ground based. The vehicle employs super capacitors to store the energy, which is then consumed by electric motors located in the wheels. The vehicle is developed for terminals, such as container terminals. Currently, the Z-AGV is tested in a site in Lausanne, Switzerland with future plans to be employed in automated container terminals, such as those found in Rotterdam and Hamburg.[14]
The Z-AGVs have a load capacity of 61 tonnes, and can carry cassettes with double-stacked 40-foot containers or two 20-foot containers in a single tier. Due to the use of electric motors the maneuverability have been made by incorporating individual electrically driven and steered bogie axles which enable the Z-AGVs to be moved in any direction and turn through 360 degrees. The C-AGV can be steered conventionally or ‘crab’ diagonally, or it can move completely transversally. The cassette designs enable the C-AGV to enter and exit both transversally and longitudinally, which allows decoupling at the quayside.[15]
Ordinary bicycles, recumbent bicycles, and other derivatives as velomobiles, cabin cycles and freight bicycles are probably the most well known zero-emissions transport surface vehicles.
Besides these human-powered vehicles, animal powered vehicles and battery electric vehicles (which besides cars also feature aircraft, electric boats, ...) also do not emit any of the above pollutants, nor any CO2 gases during use. Of course, this is a particularly important quality in densely populated areas, where the health of residents can be severely affected. However, the production of the fuels that power ZEVs, such as the production of hydrogen from fossil fuels, may produce more emissions per mile than the emissions produced from a conventional gasoline powered vehicle. A well-to-wheel life cycle assessment is necessary to understand the emissions implications associated with operating a ZEV.
Other zero emission vehicle technologies include plug-in hybrids (eg ICE/electric battery) when in electric mode, some plug-in hybrids in both recharging and electric mode (eg fuel cell/electric battery], compressed air engine/electric battery), liquid nitrogen vehicles, hydrogen vehicles (utilizing fuel cells or converted internal combustion engines), and compressed air vehicles typically recharged by slow (home) or fast (road station) electric compressors, flywheel energy storage vehicles, solar powered cars, and tribrids.
Segway Personal Transporters are two-wheeled, self-balancing, battery-powered machines that are eleven times more energy-efficient than the average American car. Operating on two lithium-ion batteries, the Segway PT produces zero emissions during operation, and utilizes a negligible amount of electricity while charging via a standard wall outlet.[16]
Finally, especially for boats (although ground vessels operating on wind exist) and other watercraft, regular and special sails (as rotorsails, wing sails, turbo sails, skysails exist that can propel it emissionless. Also, for larger ships (as tankers, container vessels, ...), nuclear power is also used (though not commonly).
Electric trains, High-speed rail, subways, sail-powered boats, trolleybuses, trams, electric buses, and cycle rickshaws.
Electric cars, electric boats, sail-powered boats, bicycles, recumbent bicycles, velomobiles, cabin cycles, freight bicycles
Japanese public transport is being driven in the direction of zero emissions due to growing environmental concern. Honda has launched a conceptual bus which features exercise machines to the rear of the vehicle to generate kinetic energy used for propulsion.
Due to the stop-start nature of idling in public transport, regenerative braking may be a possibility for public transport systems of the future. After all, public transport costs councils money, so money well spent on saving fuel is money saved.
In an attempt to curb carbon emissions as well as noise pollution in South African cities, the South African Department of Science & Technology (DST), as well as other private investments, have made US$5 million available through the Innovation Fund for the development of the Joule. The Joule is a five seater car, planned to be released in 2014.[17]
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